A. The Growth of Industrialization
      The USA had an abundance of the elements necessary for industrialization. 
          1. With increased demand and fewer workers during the war, mechanization increased and production techniques improved. Mass production overtook many cottage industries.
         2. The labor force was swelled by immigrants.  Between 1870 and 1920, there were 26.4 million immigrants. Chinese, Irish, and African-American laborers built the railroads .
         3. Raw materials
                   a. Fossil fuel replaced whale oil for lighting and lubricating machine parts.  John D. Rockefeller owned Standard Oil that supplied 95% of the nation’s oil.
                   b. The Mesabi Range in Minnesota is the largest iron ore-producing region in the world.  Andrew Carnegie and Henry Frick gained control of the Mesabi Range to feed US Steel.  When Carnegie retired, he sold his holdings in US Steel to John Pierpont Morgan.
                   c. The USA also has the world’s largest deposit of coal.
         4. Transportation
                    a. The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, and the golden spike was driven at Promontory, UT.  In 1865, there were less than 35,000 miles of tracks.  By 1900, there were 193,000 miles of tracks.
                    b. Fortunes were made in railroads by Rockefeller, Morgan, James J. Hill Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, and Leland Stanford.
          5. By 1880, the industrial production of the USA surpassed that of Britain.


B. The Gospel of Wealth
      Andrew Carnegie wrote an essay, The Gospel of Wealth in 1889 in which he advocated laissez-faire capitalism, social Darwinism, and philanthropy.
         1. The government should adopt a policy of laissez-faire (hands off) toward business.  It should not regulate, tax, or otherwise interfere with expansion and profit.  
                   a. Before the progressive period (1901-1917), the robber barons suffered few restraints from government regulation.  By financing campaigns, they controlled legislators and judges.  They owned newspapers that shaped public opinion.  They drove competitors into bankruptcy by under-pricing, and, after the competition was eliminated, they raised prices.
                   b.The protective tariff and aid to corporations bound the fortunes of the captains of industry to the Republican Party.  The government used the US Army to protect railroad construction against the Indians.  It did not regulate railroads, but it supported them by land grants.  Railroad owners demanded five square miles of land on each side of the track.  By 1871, they owned about 320,000 square miles.  (The land area of New Jersey is 7,417 square miles.)   Although the land grant was vast, its value amounted to about 8% of the cost of building the transcontinental railroad.
                   c.   Income tax was fended off until the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913.  Troops were also used for strike breaking.  Congress passed high protective tariffs.  The Supreme Court handed down decisions that were favorable to the captains of industry.  They were immune from enforcement of anti-trust laws.  Richard Hofstadter called this “the cynicism of the spoils men.”
         2. Social Darwinism
                   a. Charles Darwin, a biologist, wrote in The Origin of Species (1859) that organic life evolved from a lower to a higher order through a process of natural selection.  The strong and those who could adapt to changing conditions survived.
                   b. Social Darwinists applied the law of survival of the fittest to the social and economic development of human beings which Darwin repudiated.
                             1) Carnegie and Rockefeller rose from rags to riches.  Anyone who worked hard could prosper.  If people were poor, it was their own fault.  Horatio Alger wrote over one hundred novels, including Ragged Dick, which had a similar theme: If young boys were honest, hard working, thrifty, and had some luck, they too could achieve middle class respectability.
                             2) John D. Rockefeller said, “The American beauty rose can be produced only by sacrificing the early buds that grow around it.”  The realpolitik is that a few are wealthy because many are poor.  The captains of industry increased their wealth by paying low wages.
         3. Philanthropy
             Rockefeller said, “God gave me my money.”  Carnegie wrote in that the rich were the stewards of wealth and had an obligation to improve society.  Philanthropists endowed colleges and foundations.  There were Vanderbilt, Johns Hopkins (Baltimore and Ohio Railroad), Carnegie-Mellon, and Stanford Universities, and the Ford Foundation.  Carnegie wrote, “The man who dies rich dies disgraced.”

C. The Supreme Court and Big Business
          1. Munn v. Illinois (1877)
             Supported by the Grange, farmers sought relief from the exorbitant freight rates charged by the railroads.  The Illinois legislature set “reasonable” maximum rates.  This was appealed in he US Supreme Court which upheld the Illinois legislature stating, “When private property is devoted to public use it is subject to regulation.”
         2. Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific Railroad (1886)
             The Supreme Court applied to corporations the property protection of the Fourteenth Amendment.  It reversed the Munn decision, ruling that a state could not set maximum freight rates because it would be depriving railroads of profit.
         3. Wabash, St. Louis , and Pacific Railroads v. Illinois (1886) held that a state legislature could not fix maximum freight rates on commerce that crossed state lines because Congress had exclusive authority over interstate commerce.  Later, when Congress was progressive, the US Supreme Court upheld the authority of states over local commerce in Hammer v. Dagenhart.
         4. Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co. (1895) held that income tax was unconstitutional.

D. The Politics of the 1870s and 1880s
          1. The disputed election of 1876
                    a. Samuel Tilden, the Democratic candidate for president, polled 264,000 more popular votes than the Republican, Rutherford B. Hayes.  Republicans challenged the returns from South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida, states still supervised by the US Army, and claimed that Hayes carried all three states, giving him a plurality in the electoral college. An electoral commission awarded all of the disputed electoral votes to Hayes.
                    b. The southern states acquiesced because Conservative Republicans offered the Compromise of 1877.  The GOP conceded control of the South to the Democrats in exchange for control of the White House.  It agreed to end Reconstruction and to withdraw the troops and granted “home rule” to the South.  The North won the war, but the South won Reconstruction.
         2. African-Americans would not enjoy the rights of citizenship for a century.
                    a. In 1879, African-Americans called "exodusters," fearing the reinstitution of slavery, migrated to Kansas.
                    b. By 1886, the Southern Redeemers (a.k.a. the Bourbons ) had regained control of the south for the Democratic Party.  The “solid South ” would last until President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 
                    c. In the 1890s, the Jim Crow Laws extended segregation to public schools, transportation, hotels, restaurants, theaters, toilets, and drinking fountains.  (Jim Crow was a blackface character in an antebellum minstrel show.)
                   d. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 had required equality in employment and in public facilities.  After Reconstruction ended, Civil Rights Cases (1883) declared it unconstitutional.  The Slaughterhouse Cases (1873) also weakened the protections given to African-Americans by interpreting narrowly the “privileges or immunities” conferred by the Fourteenth Amendment.
                   e. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) permitted “separate but equal” transportation and public schools.  The effects of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments virtually disappeared.  In his dissent, Justice John Harlan  wrote that the Constitution was colorblind and that the arbitrary separation of citizens on the basis of race was wholly inconsistent with freedom.
                    f. African-American leaders disagreed on the strategy for acquiring equal rights.
                              1)Booker T. Washington believed that blacks must lift themselves up by their bootstraps.  In his address at the Atlanta Exposition in 1895, he said that blacks should overlook segregation and the denial of voting rights and earn the respect of whites. Because he rejected militancy, he received donations from whites and founded the Tuskegee Institute.
                             2) Doctor W.E.B. DuBois criticized Washington’s submissiveness and called his address “The Atlanta Compromise.”  He led the Niagara Movement (1905) that demanded voting rights for African-Americans.  He asserted that blacks should be proud of their African heritage.  He cooperated with white reformers who founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, 1909) that worked to end racial discrimination.
          3. In the 1880s and 1890s, the New South movement, led by Henry W. Grady, sought a partnership with northern industrialists in order to improve the economic condition of the South that was no longer dependent on slavery and cotton.  Many northern industries moved to the South to take advantage of low wages, social conservatism, and anti-union sentiments.
          4. The Greenback and Free Silver movements
                    a. When the USA returned to the gold standard in 1866, debtors protested having to pay off loans with currency worth three times more than it had been when they borrowed it.  The Greenback Labor Party (1874-1886) supported paper currency.
                   b. The Bland-Allison Act (1878) was sponsored by Representative Richard P. “Silver Dick” Bland.  It provided for the coinage of silver at a ratio of 16 to 1, i.e., 16 ounces of silver equaled one ounce of gold.  Putting silver dollars into circulation would be inflationary, which debtor-farmers wanted.  The government, however, purchased very little silver for coins, which disappointed the farmers and western mine owners.  More cynicism of the spoils men.  
                    c. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890) authorized the purchase of more silver, but it was later repealed because of the Panic of 1893.  The era from the end of the Civil War to the outbreak of World War I was characterized by periodic economic panics, or depressions.  American history is marked with a cycle of recessions: 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893, 1907, 1929, 1982, and 2008.
            5. James G. Blaine
                    a. Blaine , Speaker of the House of Representatives, sought the GOP nomination for the presidency in 1876.  He had been involved in a railroad scandal, and Hayes was nominated and elected president that year.  In 1880, James A. Garfield was elected president.  Blaine was appointed Secretary of State and became the power behind the throne.
                   b. In 1884, Blaine was nominated for the presidency.  This split the GOP.
                              1) The “stalwarts,” ultraconservative, pro-business, no-reform Republicans, denounced Blaine as a “half breed, ” their name for a moderate Republican reformer.
                             2) The “mugwumps ” were liberal, Republican reformers  who opposed corruption and refused to support Blaine because of his involvement in a railroad scandal, which was disclosed by the Mulligan letters.
                    c. It was a mudslinging campaign.
                             1) The Republicans smeared Grover Cleveland, a bachelor, for fathering an illegitimate son, Oscar, by Maria Halpin, a thirty-six year old widow.  Their campaign slogan was, “Ma, Ma, where, my Pa?”  “Gone to the White House ha, ha, ha.”
                             2) The Democrats’ slogan was “Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine .”  It was not a very good year for slogans.
                             3) Days before the election, Blaine made an appearance at a gathering of Protestant clergymen supporters at which the Reverend Sam Burchard called the Democrats a party of “rum, Romanism, and rebellion,” i.e. a party of anti-prohibitionists, Catholics, and southerners.  Grover Cleveland won the election, carrying immigrants and the solid South.
     
E. The Passing of the Frontier
          1. The Turner thesis
             In his essay, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893), Frederick Jackson Turner, a professor at the University of Wisconsin , held that the frontier, with its cheap, unsettled land, was the chief influence in shaping the American character.  For Turner, this was independence, rugged individualism, ingenuity, mobility, materialism, and patriotism. 
         2. Other revisionists repudiate the Turner-Hollywood version of the history of the West, claiming that it is a white, male, romantic view.
                   a. The West was not always a land of opportunity.  Half of those who sought gold or silver returned penniless.  Farmers faced crop failures, backbreaking work, and isolation.
                    b. Native Americans were massacred, cheated, and herded onto reservations. Revisinists call this "The American Holocaust."
                   c. Women were victimized as dance hall girls and prostitutes.  Native American women were abused by white and Indian men.  Mormons practiced polygamy.  Some Chinese engaged in white slavery.
         3. People went west for land, jobs working on the railroad, and gold.
                    a. land
                              1) The Homestead Act (1862) virtually gave away land.  It was also a gift from a grateful nation to Civil War veterans.  Thousands heeded Horace Greeley ’s advice, “Go west, young man, go west.”  People could stake a claim for 160 acres, register it for $30 or live on it for five years, and it was theirs. Only about 15% of the nearly one billion acres, however, was given to homesteaders.  The rest went to railroads nd land speculators.  From 1862 to 1890 (the Homestead Act to the closing of the frontier), three times more land in the USA was cultivated than in the previous three hundred years.
                              2) The Morrill Act (1862) (a.k.a. the Land Grant College Act) was an impetus for college education in the West.  Congress made land grants to establish agricultural, engineering, and military colleges.  Sixty-nine land grant colleges were founded including Ohio State, Texas A&M, Cornell, and Penn State
                              3) Cattle ranches grew with the railroads and advances in meatpacking.  The long drive to the railroad against the dangers of Indian attack, stampede, and rustlers immortalized the cowboy.
                   b. The railroads brought settlers westward.  By 1890, there were 8.5 million people west of the Mississippi River .  The railroads also transported grain and livestock to Chicago .
                   c. Gold and silver brought fortune hunters westward.  There was the Gold Rush in San Francisco in 1849, in Pike’s Peak in Colorado in 1859, and in the Black Hills in the Dakota Territory in 1875.
         5. The Plains Indians
                    a. The Indian Removal Act (1830) had declared that all the land west of the Mississippi River was a permanent Indian frontier.  In 1860, Native Americans inhabited half of North America .  As more people moved west after the Civil War, the Native Americans were in the way of the railroad, ranchers, farmers, and miners.
                    b. Battle hardened veterans under Generals Sheridan, Sherman , and Custer were dispatched to protect railroad workers and settlers.  General Sheridan said, “The only good Indian is a dead Indian.”  One-fifth of the army fighting the Indian wars was buffalo soldiers .
                         1) The Chivington Massacre at Sand Creek, CO (1864)
                              The Colorado militia killed 450 Cheyenne .  A white observer wrote, “They were scalped, their brains knocked out; men used their knives, ripped open women, clubbed little children with their guns, beat their brains out, and mutilated their bodies.” (Carnes, Garraty, 458)
                         2) Native Americans raided settlers, railroad workers’ camps, and small units of soldiers.  In 1866, the Oglala Sioux killed eighty-two soldiers under Captain W.J. Fetterman who were protecting the miners on the Bozeman Trail in Wyoming that led to gold deposits in the West.  They hacked the bodies of soldiers, disemboweled them, and severed their private parts.  Following the Fetterman Massacre, General Sherman said, “We must act with vindictive earnestness against the Sioux even to their extermination, men, women and children.”  President Grant disavowed extermination in favor of reservations.
                         3) In the Treaty at Fort Laramie in 1868, Native Americans allowed the settlers safe passage on the Oregon Trail, and the government accepted the Indians’ hunting rights in the Black Hills and the Great Plains (SD,WY, and MT).  This treaty was soon broken.
                         4) The Apache War began with the massacre of over one hundred Apache in Arizona in 1871.  Mexicans hated the Apache and assisted the US Army.  Geronimo was captured in 1886, and the survivors were dispersed to small reservations in the Southwest.
                         5) A gold rush into the Black Hills in 1876 violated the treaty with the Sioux Nation.  Twenty-five hundred Sioux under Chiefs Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull massacred all 264 men of Custer ’s Seventh Cavalry at the Little Big Horn.
                         6) The Ghost Dance movement started by Wovoka promised a Messiah and the return of the buffalo.  It called for hunting instead of farming, rejection of the white man’s culture, especially alcohol, and a return to the old ways.  It was a religious ritual, not a war dance, but the army feared an uprising.  The US cavalry attacked and killed over 200 Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek , SD in 1890.  Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (1970) by Dee Brown was written about the Native American victims of white Americans, 1860-1890.
                    c. Native Americans needed buffalo for food, clothing, and shelter.  Buffalo even had a religious significance for them.  Before the Civil War, Native Americans killed many buffalo because the trade in hides was lucrative.  Soldiers, traders, and sportsmen led by Buffalo Bill Cody hunted buffalo for hides and to diminish the Indians’ food supply.  In the 1880s the buffalo were reduced from about fifty million to a few thousand.
                   d. Helen Hunt Jackson criticizedthe government’s policy towards the Native Americans in A Century of Dishonor (1881).  This led to the passage of the Dawes Act.  Teddy Roosevelt called her a foolish sentimentalist.
                   e. By the Dawes Severalty Act (1887), US government attempted to assimilate the Native Americans into American culture.  The basic unit of American society was the nuclear family, and the basic unit of Indian society was the tribe.  The act diminished the power of the tribe by redistributing tribal land in several individual family farms. Boarding schools were established.
                    f. By 1934, 86 million of the 138 million acres originally designated to Native Americans had been acquired by whites.  Assimilation had failed.  Indians were granted US citizenship in 1924.  Under John Collier , the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act in 1934, which repealed the Dawes Severalty Act.  It restored tribal governments and considered them to be like city governments.  Their languages and their religious and tribal life had survived.
                  g. The relationship of the whites with the Native Americans evolved through enslavement by the Spanish, trade, encroachment, removal, reservations, extermination, severalty, tribal ownership of land, and cultural preservation.  The current government policy is tribal sovereignty, even though there is still dependence on government assistance.

F. The Grange Movement
          1. The Patrons of Husbandry, popularly known as the Grangers, was founded by Oliver H. Kelly in 1867.  To relieve the grinding, lonely life on the farms, they sponsored square dances, county fairs, and lectures.
         2. After the Panic of 1873, they became politically active in support of the farmers.
                   a. the plight of the farmers : high freight rates, the long haul and short haul, high interest rates, high storage costs, large profit for middlemen, and price fixing of commodities.
                   b. The Grange organized cooperatives that provided loans, storage facilities, and bulk buying and selling.  By 1875, there were 850,000 members in 21,000 cooperatives.
                   c. Reformers passed Granger laws in Illinois , Wisconsin , and Iowa which placed a ceiling on freight rates.  The Grange’s greatest triumph was the Munn decision, and it collapsed with the Wabash decision in 1886.  It reverted to providing social events.

G. The Populist Reform
          1. The Northern Alliance and the Southern Alliance continued the fight for the farmers.  They won majorities in twelve state legislatures and elected over fifty reformers to Congress.
         2. At a convention in Omaha, NB in 1892, the two alliances merged into the People’s Party.  The Populist Program:
                    a. free coinage of silver
                   b. government ownership of  the railroads, telephone and, telegraph and the nationalization of the banks.  This reflected the influence of European socialism. Most Americans wanted to reform abuses but also wished to preserve capitalism.
                   c. income tax that was eventually accomplished by the Sixteenth Amendment (1913)
                   d. popular election of US senators came with the Seventeenth Amendment (1913)
                   e. tariff reduction
                   f. initiative: voter petition for state legislation
                   g. referendum: voter approval of state legislation
                   h. recall: removal from office by the voters
                   i. the eight-hour day for factory workers
         3. The Populists nominated General James Weaver for president in 1892.  The Democrat, former president Grover Cleveland, defeated the incumbent President Benjamin Harrison and Weaver.  The Populists ran strong in the West.  They did not, however, attract labor or African-Americans.  Populism was perceived as an agrarian crusade.  Not until Franklin Roosevelt would there be a coalition of labor, farmers, African-Americans, and white southerners.

H. The Rise of Labor
          1. The factory workers saw their plight as a direct effect of the excesses of big business that kept wages low and refused to recognize unions.
                   a. the plight of labor: low wages, long hours, unhealthy and dangerous conditions in the work place, child labor, no pensions, poverty, slums, and crime.
                   b. The twelve-hour day and seven-day week prevailed in US Steel until 1913.  In 1900, unskilled workers received $1 per day (the purchasing power of $26.40 today), skilled workers $2 per day, and women and children $2 to $4 per week.
         2. Urbanization accompanied industrialization.  Immigrants and farmers seeking employment converged on cities.  Workers lived near factories, and cities were marked by ethnic neighborhoods and racial segregation.  Those who were able withdrew to the suburbs.  Industry located in Northeastern cities near the labor force and shipping to the European market or near resources, e.g. coal and iron near Pittsburgh .
                   a. By 1890, the populations of Chicago , New York , and Philadelphia exceeded one million.
                   b. Political machines such as Tammany Hall , and immigrants took over city governments.  Patronage and graft abounded, but there was a Robin Hood character in this corruption.  In an age when the federal government did not provide many social services, political machines filled the vacuum and took care of the destitute.
         3. Labor unions were illegal.  They violated the Sherman Anti-trust Act (1890) which said, “Every contract, combination in the form of a trust [i.e., monopoly], or conspiracy in restraint of trade is illegal.”  Strikes would restrain trade.  Employers also argued that unions violated the rights of individual workers to bargain for themselves.
         4. Management blocked the labor movement.
                   a. yellow dog contract:  Workers had to sign a contract not to join a union.
                   b. Black listing tried to prevent union organizers from finding another job.  Employers would spread the word to other companies that certain people were troublemakers.
                   c. Company towns effectively curbed unionizing.  Wages were low, but the company provided housing and stores.
                   d. lockout:  Strikes could be broken by preventing employees from returning to work, starving them into submission, and hiring scabs.
          5. The Knights of Labor began under Uriah Stephens in 1869.  Unions were illegal, and the Knights were a small and unorganized secret society fascinated with Masonic rituals and symbols.  Under the leadership of Terrence Powderly the workers became more militant.
                   a. the Railroad Strike (1877)
                       There was a protest against a wage cut by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.  The state militia and then the US Army were sent in to break the strike and to restore order.  About one hundred men were killed in the conflict.  The unions were portrayed as violent, and the strikers had to return to work at wages offered by the railroad.
                   b. the Haymarket Riot 1886)
                       In Haymarket Square , Chicago , there was a strike to secure an eight-hour workday, and the police were massed to break the strike.  German-born socialists and anarchists were in the crowd, and someone threw a bomb.  Seven policemen were killed and about fifty were injured.  The police fired into the crowd.  Although the unions tried to dissociate themselves from the radicals, the press tarred the Knights as bomb-throwers and socialists.
                    c. the Homestead Strike (1892)
                       The steel workers at the Carnegie Plant in Homestead , PA struck against a wage cut.  The state militia broke the strike, and workers had to accept the terms set by management.
                   d. the Pullman Strike 1894)
                       During the Panic of 1893, the Pullman Railroad Car Co. cut wages by one third but did not lower the rent in the company town nor reduce dividends to stock holders.  Eugene V. Debs organized the American Railway Union in a sympathy strike that paralyzed transportation nationally.  President Cleveland dispatched the army to restore order and protect interstate commerce and mail delivery.  Debs was the sworn enemy of the excesses of industrial capitalism.  He was imprisoned and emerged as a confirmed socialist.  He ran for the presidency five times on the American Socialist ticket.
                    e. The Molly Maguires were a secret organization of coal miners that protested poor working conditions with sabotage and assassinations (1854 to 1876).
          6. The labor movement had internal problems, and by 1890 the Knights had faded.
                   a. The bargaining power of skilled workers, such as electricians, carpenters, and plumbers, was weakened by membership in unions that included many unskilled workers.
                   b. The financial resources of unions were exhausted by strikes.
                   c. Public support was lost because of violence.
         7. The American Federation of Labor was founded by Samuel Gompers, “The Father of American Labor” in 1886.  He formed a federation of five unions of skilled tradesmen.  The AFL was not a union of workers but a federation of independent trade unions.  It differed from the Knights in that the members of unions in the AFL were all skilled workers.  The Knights had included both skilled and unskilled workers.  Gompers stressed “bread and butter” unionism, concentrating on acquiring a living wage, the eight-hour day, and safe working conditions.  He refused association with socialists.
         8. John L. Lewis helped to form the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations ) for semi-skilled and unskilled industrial workers (1935).  Lewis was later a powerful leader of the United Mine Workers.  The AFL and CIO merged in 1955. A. Philip Randolph was a civil rights leader and labor organizer.  The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters joined the CIO in 1937.

I. The Cross of Gold - The Election of 1896
          1. The Republicans nominated William McKinley, a stalwart, who supported the gold standard and high tariffs, which protected the domestic market but were an obstacle to foreign trade.
         Tariff summary:
              1816  Henry Clay's American System (an average of 20% ad valorem)
              1828  Tariff of Abominations (40%)
              1833  Compromise Tariff (20%)
              1890  McKinley Tariff (49.5%)
              1897  Dingley Tariff (57%)
              1909  Payne-Aldrich Tariff (38%)
              1913  Underwood-Simmons Tariff (30%)
              1922  Fordney-McCumber Tariff (50%)
              1931  Hawley-Smoot Tariff (59%).
         2. The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who supported the free coinage of silver. In his “Cross of Gold” speech at the Democratic Convention he said, “You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns.  You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.”  The Populists threw their support to Bryan.
         3. Bryan crisscrossed the country, traveling 18,000 miles and giving 600 speeches.
         4. Marcus Hanna, a shipping and streetcar magnate managed McKinley’s campaign and assessed industrialists .25% of their corporate assets.  McKinley spoke from his front porch in Canton, OH to groups that were brought in by railroad.  Just before the election, workers around the country were paid and were told not to return to work if McKinley lost.  Hanna’s victory message to McKinley was, “God’s in his heaven.  All’s right with the world.”
          5. Bryan was the leader of an agrarian crusade and did not attract the majority of factory workers.  Like the Populists, he was perceived as anti-urban, anti-immigrant, and anti-Semitic. Many farmers thought that urban corruption, foreigners, and bankers were serious threats to their simpler, rural, virtuous way of life.  Bryan was the Democratic nominee in 1900 and lost another presidential election and a third in 1908. 
         6. The Grange had collapsed with the Wabash decision.  The Knights had been crushed by the Haymarket Riot, and labor was largely unorganized.  The Populists went down to defeat with Bryan .  The farmers and factory workers saw no way out of poverty.  It seemed that a generation of protest had failed.